• ORIGIN = India. Kannon personifies compassion and is one of the most widely worshipped divinities in Asia and Japan in both ancient and modern times. Kannon’s origins are unclear, but most scholars agree that Kannon worship began in India around the 1st or 2nd century AD and then spread to Southeast Asia, China, Korea, and most other Asian nations. Veneration of Kannon in Japan began in the late 6th century, soon after Buddhism reached Japan by way of Korea and China. In Japan, Kannon’s paradise is known as Fudarakusen. It is commonly said to be located at the southern tip of India (which supports theories of Kannon’s Indian origin). Many Kannon statues from Japan’s Asuka Era (538 to 710) are still extant. Originally male in form, Kannon is now often portrayed as female in China, Japan, and other East Asian countries. Each of these nations dressed Kannon in different forms to suit their own temperaments and spiritual concepts.
   
• TRANSLATION. Avalokitêśvara is a Sanskrit term, masculine in gender, that translates as Lord Who Regards All (avalokita = observe, iśvara = unimpeded). Īśvara, another name for Śiva, Mahêśvara, or Īśvaradeva (the king of the deva), is a likely component of the name Avalokitêśvara. The Sino-Japanese term Kannon 観音 (Chinese = Guānyīn) literally means watchful listening, and is often translated as “one who sees / hears all.” This is indeed the task of the compassionate Kannon — to witness and listen to the prayers and cries of those in difficulty in the earthly realm, and to help them achieve salvation. Another Japanese name for Kannon is Kanzeon 観世音, the one who constantly surveys (kan 観) the world (ze 世) listening for the sounds (on 音) of suffering. It was later shortened to Kannon. 
   
• SCRIPTURAL BASIS. Kannon is a Bodhisattva (Jp. = Bosatsu), one who achieves enlightenment but postpones Buddhahood until all can be saved. Kannon is mentioned in numerous Mahayana sutra (religious texts), especially the Lotus Sutra 法華経 (Hokekyō), which was translated into Chinese by Kumārajīva (Jp. = Kumarajū 鳩摩羅什, 350 - 410), who rendered Kannon’s name as “One Who Observes the Sounds of the World.” Kannon also appears in the Kegonkyō 華厳経 (Skt. = Avatamsaka Sutra) and Hannya Shingyō 般若心経 (Skt. = Prajnaparamita Sutra; Engish = Heart Sutra), as well as in scriptures of the pure land school like the Muryōju-kyō 無量寿経, and in tantric (esoteric) texts such as Jūichimen Kanzeon Shinju-kyō and Senju Sengen Darani-kyō.
   
• MEMBER OF PURE LAND SECTS. Kannon is an active emanation of Amida Buddha, and thus s/he occupies a major place in the liturgy of Japan’s Pure Land (Jōdo 浄土) sects, whose principal deity of worship is Amida. In Mahayana Buddhism throughout Asia, Kannon is the most important of Amida’s two main attendants (kyōji 脇侍). The other is Seishi Bosatsu. In Japan, the three appear in a popular grouping known as the Amida Sanzon (lit. = Amida Triad), with Amida in the center, Seishi (representing wisdom) on the right, and Kannon (representing compassion) on the left. See photo in adjacent sidebar. In another popular grouping known as the Amida Raigō (Amida’s Welcoming Descent), the three are typically shown atop clouds descending from above to welcome the souls of the dying -- those on their death bed who are faithfully chanting Amida’s nenbutsu 念仏 (a set phrase for praying to Amida which is “Namu Amida Butsu” 南無阿弥陀仏, meaning All Hail Amida Buddha). Kannon is also one of 25 Bodhisattva who descend from heaven with Amida to welcome dying souls into Amida’s Pure Land. In triad and other artwork, the top of Kannon's crown is often adorned with a small image of Amida (called a Kebutsu 化仏), symbolizing Kannon’s role as Amida’s principal attendant. Jizō Bosatsu, like Kannon, is one of Amida Buddha’s main attendants and, like Kannon, is one of the most popular modern deities in Japan’s Pure Land (Jōdo 浄土) sects. The two share many overlapping functions -- both protect the Six Realms of Karmic Rebirth (the Six Jizō, the Six Kannon), both are patrons of motherhood & children (the Koyasu Jizō, the Koyasu Kannon), and both protect the souls of aborted children (the Mizuko Jizō, the Mizuko Kannon). In some scriptures, they even share the same Ennichi 縁日 (Holy Day). The 18th day of each month is considered Kannon’s Ennichi. Jizō’s Ennichi is generally on the 24th, but at many temples it occurs on the 18th.
   
• FEMININE VERSIONS. Although depicted with masculine features in the earliest representations, Kannon later appears with attributes of both genders and eventually becomes a symbol of the divine feminine, the divine mother in both China and Japan. Popular feminine versions in modern Japan include Koyasu Kannon (child giving), Jibo Kannon (loving mother), Gyoran Kannon (carrying fish basket), and others. Kannon’s Śakti is Tara Bosatsu, who is sometimes depicted as Kannon’s wife; Śakti is Sankrit for “female personification or avatar of the male.” Feminized forms of Kannon also exist in Japan’s Christian and Shintō traditions, notably Maria Kannon (Virgin Mary) and the Shintō Sun Goddess Amaterasu (often paired with Kannon in Japan’s Kami-Buddha matrix).
   
• KANNON PILGRIMAGES. Kannon can appear in many different forms to save people. The Lotus Sutra (Hokekyō 法華経), one of the most popular Mahayana scriptures throughout Asia owing to its message that anyone, whether male or female, has the potential to attain Buddhahood, mentions 33 (thirty-three) forms that Kannon assumes when aiding sentient beings. In modern Japan, Kannon’s 33 forms are the basis for hundreds of Kannon Pilgrimage Circuits. Among the best known are the Saigoku Pilgrimage to 33 sites (Kansai area), the Bandō Pilgrimage to 33 sites (Kantō area), and the Chichibu Pilgrimage to 34 sites (Saitama Valley). These three circuits cover 100 sites, and making the pilgrimage to each site in proper order is said to save the believer from hell and to open the gates to everlasting life. The Lotus Sutra is the scriptural basis for these pilgrimage circuits.
   
• ESOTERIC KANNON FORMS. In addition to the 33 Forms of Kannon, this deity also comes in six salvific forms to save all sentient beings trapped in the Six Realms of Karmic Rebirth (the cycle of suffering, the cycle of samsara). Kannon is also one of the 13 Buddha 十三仏 (Jūsanbutsu) of Japan’s Shingon sect of Esoteric Buddhism (Mikkyō 密教) invoked in memorial services for the dead. In this role, Kannon presides over the memorial service held on the 100th day following one's death.
   
• ENNICHI (Holy Day). The 18th day of each month is considered Kannon’s Ennichi 縁日, literally "related day" or “day of connection.” This is translated as holy day, one with special significance to a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva. Saying prayers to the deity on this day is believed to bring greater merits and results than on regular days. Says the Digitial Dictionary of Buddhism (login = guest): “The deity is understood to be in special charge of mundane affairs on that day, e.g. the 5th is Miroku, 15th Amida, 25th Monju, 30th Shaka. According to popular belief, religious services held on such a day will have particular merit.” <end quote> See Ennichi list for 30 Deities (Sanjūn Nichi Hibutsu 三十日秘仏; Japanese only).
   
• MANDALA. In Japan’s Taizōkai Mandala, Kannon appears in esoteric forms in the Lotus Court (Rengebu-in 蓮華部院), which is also known as the Kannon Court (Kannon-in 観音院). These and other esoteric Kannon forms are classified into the Kannon-bu 観音部 (lit. = Kannon family).
   
• Worshipped independently as a savior par excellence by many sects, including Japan’s Pure Land Sects (devoted to Amida), the Nichiren sect, the Zen sect, the Tendai and Shingon sects of Esoteric Buddhism, indeed, by nearly all Buddhist sects. Kannon worship is essentially non-denominational and widespread.
   
• In Japan, numerous historical figures are considered emanations of Kannon, including Prince Shōtoku Taishi (Japan’s first great patron of Buddhism), Daruma (the founder of Zen Buddhism), and Chūjō Hime 中将姫 (a Buddhist nun regarded as one of Japan’s greatest early embroidery artists). To Tibetans, the current Dalai Lama is an incarnation of Kannon. The powerful protector deity Bishamonten (the lord of the north, one of the Four Heavenly Kings, and one of Japan’s Seven Lucky Gods) is also considered a manifestation of Kannon. See Bishamon & Kannon at Kurama Dera (Kyoto).
   
• Senju Kannon (aka the 1000-Armed Kannon) is the Guardian of People Born in the Zodiac Year of the Rat.
   
• Buddhism for the Common Folk. The three deities Amida, Kannon, and Jizō, became especially popular among the common folk during the Kamakura Period (1185 - 1333 AD), and today remain the bedrock of Buddhism for the common folk. Amida for the coming life in paradise, Kannon for salvation in earthly life, and Jizō for salvation from hell. See From Court to Commoner Buddhism.
   
• New forms of Kannon have emerged in modern Japan to deal with contemporary issues such as Alzheimers (dementia), with abortion, and with caring for deceased pets. Additionally, in recent decades, many giant effigies of Kannon have been erected to pray for world peace and to honor war veterans (those who died in war).

FORMS OF KANNON IN JAPAN (arranged alphabetically)
Kannon is one of Asia’s and Japan’s most beloved deities. Kannon worship remains non-denominational and widespread. S/he appears in countless forms throughout Japan to assist with all manner of earthly petitions and to protect all those trapped in the six realms of karmic rebirth, especially the human realm. Some of Japan’s innumerable Kannon emanations (both traditional and modern) include: .

1. As esoteric deity in Kannon section of Taizōkai Mandara
2. As one of Kannon’s 33 Forms
3. As white-robed figure sitting atop rock above water in the wilderness. A common form, apparently a Chinese invention of the Tang dynasty (618-907), although not explained in texts.

In the fifth chapter of the Dainichikyō 大日経 (Skt. = Mahāvairocana Sūtra; a central text of Esoteric Buddhism composed sometime in the 6th / 7th century AD), it is said that Byakue Kannon resides within a white lotus; and in the tenth chapter, it is explained that whiteness represents the pure aspiration of enlightenment (bodaishin 菩提心) out of which the Buddha and Bodhisattva are born. Byakue thus becomes the source and lord of the Kannon section of the Taizōkai Mandara and may be called Kannon-mo 観音母 (Mother Kannon). In later Tantric Buddhism from India, Byakue Kannon is the consort of Amida 阿弥陀. It may be argued that this is a result of being considered as a symbol of the aspiration to enlightenment and the source of the Buddha and Bodhisattva in the Taizōkai Mandara. A persistent femininity clings to Byakue Kannon even though the figure is typically shown as male. Texts describe esoteric forms of Byakue Kannon with various attributes. According to written sources, at the time of retired Emperor Shirakawa 白河 (1053-1129), Byakue Kannon in the Shingonin 真言院 -- an Esoteric Buddhist hall within the imperial palace compound -- held a willow branch in one hand. This is thought to have originated from the fact that from the Tang dynasty (618-907) on, there appears to have been a ritual of offering Kannon a willow branch in a vase of pure water to ward off evil. The most common form, however, is known from Zen 禅 ink paintings of the Kamakura (1185-1333) and Muromachi periods (1392-1568). These were developed from full colored paintings of Kannon shown as a Bodhisattva seated in Fudaraku 補陀落, as he appeared to Zenzai Dōji 善財童子 in his journey seeking truth, described in the Kegonkyō Sutra 華厳経 (Flower Garland Sutra; Skt. = Avatamsaka Sutra). This form of Kannon was popular in Zen ink painting because its imagery was suitable to Zen practice. According to the Zenrin Shōkisen 禅林象器箋, the main image of the novice hall in most Zen temples was a Byakue Kannon in Fudaraku, enshrined in a niche in the center of the hall facing south. Originally a sculpture, a painting was later used. Byakue Kannon is particularly familiar as the subject of the central painting of the famous Song dynasty triptych by Muqi (Jp: Mokkei 牧谿, fl. late 13c) at Daitokuji Temple 大徳寺 in Kyoto. The flanking paintings of the Muqi work are a crane (symbol of longevity) and a monkey, whereas in other triptychs they may be landscapes, flowers-and-birds, a fisherman and woodcutter (gyoshō mondō 漁樵問答) or Kanzan Jittoku 寒山拾得. In Muromachi period ink paintings, Yōryū Kannon 楊柳観音, Suigetsu Kannon 水月観音, and Takimi Kannon 滝見観音 are similar in their clothing and their setting in Kannon's wilderness paradise Fudaraku. <end JAANUS quote>

Dōbutsu Shūgō Kannon 動物集合観音
Also known as Dōbutsu Kannon. A modern form of Kannon devoted to the care of suffering animals, one granting eternal rest to pets, one invoked in prayers for deceased pets at pet cemeteries. (Keywords =  動物供養, ペット供養, 人形供養, ぬいぐるみ供養).

PHOTO: Dobutsu Kannon, Gifu Pref., Toki City

The modern-day use of Kannon as a patron of dead pets is not surprising. There are numerous antecedents. Batō Kannon (Horse-Headed Kannon), for example, an esoteric savior of those reborn in the realm of animals, was already well-known among the common folk in the Tokugawa period, when numerous farmers prayed to Batō Kannon for the safety and preservation of their horses and cattle. Innumerable stone steles of Batō Kannon were erected in the Tokugawa and Edo periods, for this deity was intimately connected with protecting dumb animals, particularly those who labored for mankind, and with protecting their spirits and bringing them ease and a happier life than they experienced while on earth.

Says scholar Mark R. Mullins in his article The Many Forms and Functions of Kannon in Japanese Religion and Culture: “Kannon has become a favorite comforting figure used by the numerous pet cemeteries that have been built across Japan over the past two decades. The Dobutsu Shugo Kannon is devoted to the care of suffering animals and offers eternal rest to the pets. Sanzen'in Temple in Toki City, Gifu Prefecture, one such example devoted to pets, explains that it offers pet owners ‘one last opportunity to express their love and gratitude’ through the services it offers. Another facility, the Meihan Pet Kannonji in Iga City, Mie Prefecture, was established in 1994, and provides similar services of cremation, a Kannon stone monument, and a priest conducting a memorial service. In addition to the services offered for pets at these specialized cemeteries and temples, it is also possible to purchase online a Pet Kannon for 12,600 yen (US$120), which has a standing image of Kannon with several pets at his/her feet. Charges for these services vary and depend on the size of the pet. Cats and small dogs cost thirty-five thousand yen [US$330], while a larger husky or golden retriever costs fifty-five thousand yen [US$520].” <end quote by Mullins>

Female or Male? Feminized Forms of Kannon

1. A sea-port on the Indus, the παταλα of the ancients, identified by some with Thaṭtha, said to be the ancient home of Śākyamuni's ancestors.
    
2. A mountain south-east of Malakūṭa, reputed as the home of Avalokitêśvara.
    
3. The island of Pu-t'o 普陀山, east of Ningpo, the Avalokitêśvara centre (in China).
    
4. The Lhasa Potala in Tibet; the seat of the Dalai Lama, an incarnation of Avalokitêśvara; Transliteration of the Sanskrit Potalaka. Although the mountain is thought to be mythical, Xuánzàng (602-664 AD; a noted translator of Sanskrit into Chinese) attempts to locate it at the southern end of the Indian subcontinent in his Record of Travels to Western Lands 大唐西域記 (Jp. = Dai tōsaiikiki). Outside India, the name of Potala / Potalaka came to be used widely to indicate Avalokitêśvara's sacred space. This is also the traditional mountain residence of (Skt.) Potala Bodhisattva.
   
   <Sources: C Muller’s Digitial Dictionary of Buddhism and Soothill>

The Kegon-kyō 華厳経 (Skt. = Avatamsaka Sutra; Flower Garland Sutra) and various other early texts refer to Kannon's paradise as a verdant land of bliss located somewhere in the southern oceans near India. The Kegon-kyō was first translated into Chinese around 420 AD, with a second translation around 699. The teachings and texts of the Kegon school were introduced to Japan around +736 by the Chinese monk Tao Hsuan, and helped spark belief in Kannon’s Fudaraku paradise.

Many old holy mountain sites associated with Kannon and Fudaraku exist in both China and Japan -- in particular Mt. Bǔtuó 普陀山 on the Chinese isles of Zhou-shan 舟山群嶋 (Jp. = Shūzanrettō) and amidst Japan’s sacred Kumano 熊野 mountain range. For a list of Japanese sites associated with Fudaraku, see Wikipedia (J-Site only). In addition, various Japanese religious ceremonies devoted to Kannon require pratitioners to face south while making supplications (need to give example).  

Says JAANUS: “Faith in the Fudaraku paradise in Japan is illustrated in paintings known as Fudaraku Raigō-zu 補陀落来迎図, which show Kannon coming to welcome believers to Fudarakusen. The island of Potala is the chief center of Avalokitêśvara worship, where s/he is the protector of all in distress, especially of those who go to sea.”

For more on Fudaraku, see Temple Myths and the Popularization of Kannon Pilgrimage in Japan, by Mark W. MacWilliams. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 1997 24/3-4. Writes MacWilliams:

• "In Japan, the belief that temple sites either resembled or actually were Fudaraku was widespread. One of the earliest of these was Nachi-dera (Seiganto-ji 序渡寺), the first temple of the Saikoku Kannon pilgrimage in the twelfth century (page 388).”
   
• “As the eastern gate of Kannon's paradise throughout the later medieval period, Nachi-dera served as point of disembarkation for the many boat crossings (tokai 渡海）to Mount Fudaraku. Fudaraku Shinkō [faith] spread to the Kanto area with the migration of Shugendō mountain Buddhist ascetics from both the Honzan and Tōzan branches of Shugendō, who were centered in the Kinai region (page 388).”
   
• “Fudaraku itself has rich symbolic associations etymologically, mythically, and ritually with boats (page 389)."

Although MacWilliams (see above) mentions that Nachi-dera served as the point of disembarkation for the boat crossing to Mt. Fudaraku, longtime Japan-based scholar John Dougill believes this is wrong. Instead, says Dougill, "the nearby temple of Fudarakusan-ji 補陀洛山寺 was the actual place where people departed by boat for the southern seas, never to return. There is a noticeboard at the temple saying that twenty boats departed from here between the Heian and Edo periods. The monks who set off on these suicide missions apparently carried petitions from others to deliver to Fudaraku." <end quote> See Dougill's report here. Dougill adds this: “Was Fudarakusan-ji actually a part of the Nachi-dera complex in former times? To find out, I phoned the head priest at Fudarakusan-ji, who told me the temple is an independent entity. In bygone days, it was the head monk of Fudarakusan-ji who sailed away in the boat when he reached the age of sixty. Fudarakusan-ji, according to the monk, has nothing formally to do with Nachi-dera (aka Nachi Taisha, aka Seiganto-ji).” <end quote>

Fudarakusan-ji was awarded UNESCO World Heritage status in 2004. The boat journey (in a vessel called Tokaibune 渡海船 or “boat to cross the sea”) was a form of self-sacrifice aimed at the salvation of the common people. According to the Fudarakusan-ji entry at SacredJapan.com, "the abbots of this temple set out to sea on a small rudderless boat when they turned sixty years old. This practice was called Fudaraku Tokai 補陀洛渡海 and is one of the Shashin Gyō 捨身行 trainings in which priests performed an act of self-sacrifice for the purpose of human salvation. People entrusted the priests to carry their prayers for happiness and enlightenment to Fudaraku (Potala in Sanskrit) Island, Kannon's Paradise, which was said to lie somewhere off the southern coast." <end quote>

 
(L) Noticeboard at Fudarakusan-ji says twenty boats departed from here between the Heian and Edo periods.
(R) Replica of the boat -- Tokaibune 渡海船 -- used on the journey to Fudaraku. Photos courtesy John Dougill.

ABOVE: Artwork of the boat departing for Kannon's holy land appears in mandala known as Nachi Pilgrimage Mandala (Nachisankei Mandala 那智参詣曼荼羅). Two extant examples from the early Edo period are shown above. Click either image to see the complete mandala and/or enlarged sectional scans. Images from the Kokugakuin University.

• Not empty (or unerring) net, or lasso. One of the six forms of Avalokitêśvara in the Garbhadhātu group, catching deva and human fish for the bodhi-shore. Sometimes accompanied by the green Tārā, Sudhana-Kumāra, Hayagrīva and Bhṛkuṭī . There are numerous sūtras. Transliterated as 阿牟伽皤賖. Also written 不空羂索觀音 or 不空羂索王. <Source: Soothill, C. Muller, DDB; sign in with user name = guest>
   
• Iconography of Amoghapāśa, The Bodhisattva of Compassion. By Ankur Barua and M.A. Basilio. Published Hong Kong, 2009. Wonderful 27-page report devoted to Fukūkenjaku in India and East Asia. Also see this link.
   
• The British Museum

Fure-ai Kannon, Fure Ai Kannon ふれ愛観音 or ふれあい観音
Statues of Kannon that are meant to be touched or rubbed. The Japanese term Fure ふれ means to touch or interact with or pet. Says site contributor Gabi Greve: “Since most Buddha statues are in temples or museums, you are not supposed to touch them. But for blind people, there is no way to SEE what they are. So Nishimura Kōchō 西村公朝 (1915-2003), a famous modern sculptor, carved a Kannon Statue and put in up in his temple, where anybody could come and touch it. This became so popular that within a few years many other temples put up this kind of "touchable Kannon." In Japanese, there is a play on words as well, for AI 愛 is the character for “love.” <end quote>

There are other examples of the “touch me” variety. Many statues of Daikoku (one of Japan’s Seven Lucky Gods and a popular deity of agriculture and success in worldly endeavors) appear worn near the head and shoulders, as devotees believe that rubbing their hands on this god will somehow bring them luck (i.e., that good luck will rub off on them). This popular local belief may be an extension of “rubbing” traditions involving statues of Binzuru (the most widely revered of the Arhat in Japan) and Yakushi Nyorai (the Buddha of Medicine and Healing). Statues of these deities are usually well worn, as the faithful rub part of the statue (knees, back, head), then rub the same part of their body, praying for the deity to heal their sickness (e.g., cancer, arthritis, headaches, other ailments). Both are reputed to have the gift of healing. The “rubbing” tradition associated with Daikoku could thus suggest that Daikoku too possesses the gift of healing. I do not know how or when these “rubbing” traditions emerged.

Guze Kannon, or Kuse Kannon 救世観音

Hatakiri Kannon 幡切観音
Cloth-Ripping Kannon. The 88-Temple Pilgrimage on Shikoku Island (Japan) is still a popular pilgrimage today. Temple number ten, Kirihata-ji Temple 切幡寺, located on Mt. Tokudozan 得度山, is associated with a very curious legend involving Kannon Bodhisattva. This temple venerates a manifestation of Kannon named Hatakiri Kannon 幡切観音 (cloth-ripping Kannon). Says longtime site contributor Gabi Greve:

Once upon a time, at the bottom of Mt. Tokudozan, there lived a young girl who made a living by weaving cloth. One day, a poor priest came along and asked her for a piece of cloth. Without further ado, she cut in half the cloth she was working on and gave one piece to the priest. The girl's father had been banished to a faraway island, although he had not committed any crime. The girl's mother, who was pregnant when this happened, came to the mountain to give birth to the daughter, but died without being able to fulfill her wish of praying properly to the Holy Kannon. So the priest carved a statue of the Holy Kannon with a piece of cloth over her arm and gave it to the girl to pray to every day. The girl then transformed herself, sending out seven layers of light, and transformed into the Holy Kannon. As you might guess, the priest was no other than Kobo Daishi (774 - 835 AD), the founder of Japan’s esoteric sect of Shingon Buddhism as well as the founder of the 88-Temple Pilgrimage in Shikoku. Another version of the story goes like this: Kobo Daishi founded Kirihata-ji Temple in honor of a beautiful young girl. Every day, while he performed his meditations in a mountainside hut, she interrupted her cloth-weaving -- kirihata means "cutting cloth" -- to bring him food. Eventually, she told him her story. Her mother had been a lady of the court in Kyoto and her father an officer in the court guard. Before she was born, her father had been exiled for his part in a rebellion and her mother, fearful of the danger to her unborn child, prayed to Kannon, the Buddha of compassion. Her prayers were answered and she managed to flee to Shikoku island where she raised her child until she died, leaving the daughter alone. Kobo Daishi was so moved that he carved her a statue of Kannon and, heeding the girl's wishes, ordained her as a nun. She immediately attained enlightenment, or Buddhahood, and changed into a statue of Kannon joining the one Kobo Daishi had carved. Kobo Daishi took the two statues and enshrined them in the temple he built in the girl's honor. <end text from Gabi Greve >

These two legends share common elements with an even earlier tale. Says JAANUS:

Scholars believe that the original Taima Mandara was a large-scale embroidery imported from Tang China (618 - 906 AD). It is believed that in 763 AD, during Japan's Nara period, the devote Buddhist nun Chuujou Hime 中将姫 had it woven with lotus threads (Gūshi 藕糸) based on a vision she had experienced. Thus the original woven work is sometimes also called the Gūshi Mandara 藕糸曼荼羅. The miraculous weaving of the 4.5 meters square tsuzure-ori 綴織, usually translated as "figured (hand woven) brocade," is said to have been accomplished by this nun, who was believed to be a human incarnation of Kannon Bodhisattva, the main attendant to Amida. This 8th-century work is still preserved today at Taimadera 當麻寺 (Taima Temple) in fragments with a great many Kamakura period repairs. From the Heian period (10th century), with the increasing popularity of Pure Land beliefs, the work grew ever more revered. In the Kamakura period Hounen's 法然 (1133-1212) disciple Shoukuu 証空 (1177-1247), founder of the Seizan 西山 branch of the Joudo sect (Joudoshuu 浄土宗), actively propagated the teachings of the Taima Mandala (outside link). <end JAANUS quote >

Henge Kannon 変化観音
Literally “Kannon Transformations.”  A general term for the many manifestations and supernatural forms assumed by Kannon. HENGE is also used to refer to animals and mythological creatures that can transform themselves into humans or other entities. See shape-shifters page for details. Says JAANUS: “Henge Kannon refers to the ’transformations’ in which Kannon appears in order to save sentient beings. The term is frequently used in Japanese scholarly writings to refer to any deities treated as forms of the manifestations of Kannon, except for Shō Kannon, the basic pure form of Kannon. The term may be used more narrowly to refer to the forms of Kannon (apart from Shō Kannon) that came to be worshipped in Japan before the formal introduction of the Tendai 天台 and Shingon 真言 sects of Esoteric Buddhism (Mikkyō 密教) in the early 9th century. It is commonly used to describe Kannon in supernatural forms (i.e. multiple arms and heads) such as Jūichimen Kannon (Eleven-headed Kannon), Senju Kannon (Thousand-armed Kannon), Fukūkenjaku Kannon, and Nyoirin Kannon, even though some of these have standard iconographic forms (one head, two arms) as well. The idea of transformation is associated with the idea of incarnations or avatars, such as Shōtoku Taishi (574-622) being considered an incarnation of Kannon (or of Shaka, the Historical Buddha), as well as with the idea of grouping deities in families and counting one deity as an emanation of another, according to which Kannon is considered an extention of Amida Buddha. <end JAANUS quote>

Hitokoto Kannon 一言観音

Numerous giant effigies of Jibo have been erected in recent decades

The origin of the iconography is unclear, but in India, multi-headed, multi-armed figures were used by the 7th century to express the complex religious truths and practices of Buddhism. Although few examples are extant in India, a sculpted 7th-to-8th century image of Jūichimen Kannon with four arms in cave #41 at Kanheri is well-known. In China, Jūichimen was commonly portrayed from the early Tang dynasty (early 7th century), and extant examples are found in paintings in Dunhuang 敦煌 (Jp: Tonkō caves #321 and #334) as well as in bronze and stone sculptures. In Japan, belief in the power of Jūichimen Kannon is recorded from the mid 7th century, and the deity was propitiated especially for aid in convalescence from illness. Sculptural and painted images were common in the Nara period (8th century) and became extremely popular in the Heian period (9th to 12th centuries).

There are numerous extant examples, many of fine quality, such as a painted image on the walls of the Kondō 金堂 (late 7th century) at Hōryūji Temple 法隆寺 in Nara (burnt down in 1949). Devotion centered upon the practice of group confessions before an image of the deity, the most famous of which was the Shuni-e 修二会 ceremony of the Nigatsudō 二月堂 at Tōdaiji Temple 東大寺 in Nara (commonly known as Omizutori お水取り), which began in 752 AD and continues to the present day. In Esoteric Buddhism (Mikkyō 密教), Jūichimen appears in the Taizōkai Mandara 胎蔵界曼荼羅. In Shintō art (Shintō Bijutsu 神道美術), Jūichimen is a common choice as the Honjibutsu 本地仏 (Buddhist counterpart) of female Shintō deities (kami 神), and is one of the two most common choices as Honjibutsu of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu 天照, the other being Dainichi Buddha 大日. Jūichimen Kannon may be painted:

1. alone, as in the large 14th-century painting at Shidoji Temple 志度寺 in Kagawa Pref.
2. on a rock in the ocean in the paradise Fudaraku 補陀洛, often accompained by Zenzai Dōji 善財童子; Fudaraku is Kannon’s Paradise
3. in a setting like that of the large panel painting in Kaijuusenji Temple 海住山寺 in Kyoto, in which the deity descends from paradise across the sea to welcome the deceased (Raigō 来迎), accompanied by the 25 Bodhisattva.

In addition, the fame of distinct sculptural images of Jūichimen Kannon also lead their being the subject of paintings. One such example is the principal image of Hasedera Temple 長谷寺 in Nara, which as a special feature holds a pewter staff (shakujō 錫杖) in its right hand and a lotus in a vase in its left. This very large image stands on a smooth, flat stone uncovered in a landslide (instead of the lotus pedestal, rengeza 蓮華座 on which the deity first appeared). The story of the making of the image appears in the illustrated history of the temple (Shaji Engi Emaki 社寺縁起絵巻).” <end text from JAANUS>

11-Headed Kannon of Hase Dera (in Kamakura)
This large 11-headed gilt statue (see photo at right), reportedly built sometime in the 8th century, stands over nine meters high, making it the largest wooden statue of old Japan. Temple lore says this wooden statue was carved from a giant camphor tree by the monk Tokudo in 721 AD, who made two images from the same tree. The first image was enshrined in a temple in Nara Prefecture, while the second (the statue now at Hase Dera in Kamakura) was cast into the sea with prayers that it float to an area where it had greatest karmic connection and thereafter save souls in that area. According to legend, it washed up on shore in 736, at Nagai, in the Miura Peninsula, slightly south of Kamakura, glowing brightly, it is said, and later it was transferred to its present site at Hase Dera in Kamakura. <Source: Hase Dera in Kamakura>

Kanzeon 観世音 or  Kanzejizai 觀世自在 or Kanjizai 観自在
Other Japanese names for Kannon are Kanzeon, Kanzejizai, or Kanjizai, the one who constantly surveys (kan 観) the world (ze 世) listening for the sounds (on 音) of suffering. These names were later shortened to Kannon. One of the 25 Bodhisattva who accompany Amida to lead the departed souls of the faithful into Amida’s pureland. Xuánzàng (602-664 AD), a noted translator of Sanskrit into Chinese, rendered Kannon's name as Kanjizai 觀自在 (unimpeded observer), while Kumārajīva 鳩摩羅什 (+344–413), another noted translator, rendered Kannon’s name as Kanzeon 觀世音 (the lord who responds to the sufferings of the world). See 11-Headed Kannon for more details.

Karamatsu Kannon 唐松観音
Karamatsu is the term for “Japanese Larch,” a species of deciduous coniferous trees native to Japan. On the 33-Site Pilgrimage to Kannon locations in Yamagata Prefecture, the fifth temple in the circuit (constructed around 1100 years ago) is devoted to Karamatsu Kannon and patterned after the platform style of the famous Kiyomizu Dera, a temple in Kyoto. Another location devoted to this deity is Karamatsu Jinja Shrine 唐松神社, one of the most famous Shinto shrines in Akita Prefecture, reportedly built over 1000 years ago. Says site contriburtor Gabi Greve: “The original priest of the shrine is said to be a descendant of a god. The beautiful rows of Karamatsu trees lining the path to Karamatsu Shrine are over 300 years old and are said to have been planted by the Satake feudal clan in 1680. In the Edo Period, Princess Hisashi of the Satake feudal clan suffered during child birth, and it is recorded that she visited Karamatsu Shrine. ’I heard that the god of childbirth resides at Karamatsu Shrine in Senboku. I prayed for safe childbirth and for this god to alleviate my pain,’ said the Princess. At the exact moment the servants prayed for a safe childbirth, the princess safely delivered a baby boy. The Satake feudal lord gave Karamatsu Shrine a wooden snake mask in gratitude for the safe delivery of the child, and it is said that at this moment the snake whirled around – a sign that the god was pleased. The mask is still displayed today, and has been designated a ‘Prefectural Important Cultural Asset.’ Karamatsu Shrine is still a site of pilgrimage and women come from all over Japan to pray for safe delivery. <Sources: Gabi Greve and Daisen City, Akita 秋田県大仙市>

Kebutsu 化仏

Koyasu Kannon 子安観音 

Kudara Kannon 百済観音

Kudara Kannon
7th Century
百済観音

 
Houryuuji Temple 法隆寺 (Nara)
Wood (Gilded Camphor 樟)
with Polychromy
 H = 210 cm

Most scholars believe this statue came from Korea or was made by Korean artisans living in Japan. The name of the statue -- Kudara Kannon 百済観音 -- literally means "Paekche Kannon." Paekche (Paekje 百済) was one of three kingdoms in Korea during this period, and Kannon is one of the most beloved Buddhist deities in Asia. The statue’s extreme thinness seems at first bizarre, but the serenity in the face and the beautiful openwork bronze in the crown are marvelous. The vase symbolizes the “nectar” of Kannon’s compassion -- it pacifies the thirst of those who pray to Kannon for assistance.

There are many indications that the statue came from Korea (or was made by Korean artisans in Japan). The superior workmanship of the piece, plus many of the stylistic nuances (faint smile, slender face, thin body, folds in garment, halo) are all hallmarks of Paekche artisans and generally conform to artwork from Korea’s Three Kingdom Period. In the book Korean Impact On Japanese Culture (Korea: Hollym International Corp., 1984), authors Jon Carter Covell and Alan Covell say the foremost clue of Paekche influence is the crown's honeysuckle-lotus pattern, which can also be found among the artifacts discovered in the tomb of Paekche's King Munyong (reigned +501-523). The coiling of the vines, they say, plus the number of protrusions from the crown petals, are nearly identical to similar extant Korean pieces.

Kumen Kannon 九面観音
A form with nine heads, much less common than the 11-Headed version. Example: 8th century Danzō 檀像 at Hōryūji Temple 法隆寺 in Nara. See photo here.

Kuse Kannon, Kuze Kannon.
An alternative spelling of Guze Kannon.

• "In Amakusa peasants hid their Christianity from government agents by employing extraordinary tactics. They worshipped Christianity by making the articles of the Christian faith look like the articles of Buddhism. For example, figurines of the Buddhist goddess Kannon were altered so that they could double as Mother Mary. They hid crosses behind statues of the Buddha so as to worship the cross behind the Buddha." <quote from Ariake Town, Kumamoto Pref.>
   
• “The camouflaged Virgin Mary -- in the disguise of the bodhisattva Kannon -- provided the Kakure Kirishitan with a sacred image upon which to focus their worship and ritual under very difficult circumstances. The concealed sign of the cross -- placed somewhere on the image (often on the back of the statue) -- is usually the only feature that distinguishes it from a typical Buddhist image. Kentaro Miyazaki 宮崎賢太郎, one of the foremost authorities on the Kakure Kirishitan, explains that: ‘The Maria Kannon is often a figure of Koyasu Kannon or Jibo Kannon [which portrayed a mother holding a child] in white or blue porcelain, imported from China. In times of persecution during the Edo period, the underground Kirishitan could not possess a figure of the Christian Virgin Mary, therefore they projected Mary's image on the gentle image of the Buddhist Kannon and venerated her in this way.’” <excerpt Mark R. Mullins, The Many Forms and Functions of Kannon in Japanese Religion and Culture>
   
• GOOGLE IMAGES. Click Here.

Miraculous Japanese Legends About Kannon
Miracle stories about Kannon, imported originally from Tang China, were particularly widespread in old Japan, and remain so even today. One of Japan's oldest extant setsuwa 説話 collections (i.e., tales of strange and bizarre events, explained largely in terms of karma, transmigration, and other Buddhist beliefs) is known as the Nihon Ryōiki (Nihon Ryoki) 日本霊異記. Compiled in the early ninth century by the Japanese monk Kyōkai 景戒 (also pronounced Keikai), the full title of this three-volume work is 日本国現報善悪霊異記 (Nihonkoku Genpō Zen'aku Ryōiki or “Miraculous Stories of Karmic Retribution of Good and Evil in Japan”). A marvelous English translation, which includes copious annotations, was done by Kyoko Motomochi Nakamura in 1973 and is entitled "Miraculous Stories from the Japanese Buddhist Tradition." It is available and highly recommended (Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-7007-0449-3, 322 pages). Below are some abridged passages from her book:

• "Among the Buddha and Bodhisattva found in the Nihon Ryōiki, Kannon is the most popular and remains a center for devotion by all classes of people. There are 17 stories on Kannon, six on Miroku, three each on Amida, Shakyamuni, and Myōken, and two each on Kichijōten and Yakushi (p. 85)."
   
• "Ganjin, a famous blind preceptor who came from China to establish the ordination platform at Emperor Shōmu's invitation, was a great devotee of the Thousand-Armed Kannon, probably because that Kannon was believed to cure blindness (p. 87)."
   
• "In boundless compassion, Kannon is eternally at work to protect and save all sentient beings in this world and an infinite number of other worlds. One tradition explains how the Eleven-Headed Kannon came into being by a story: Avalokitêśvara once looked down on the suffering of the world and was so distressed by the sight that his head split into eleven pieces (p. 87)."
   
• "In medieval China, many legends about a girl who is identified as an incarnation of the Thousand-Armed Kuan-yin illustrate the process of acceptance of Kuan-yin as a young woman. Obviously Tantric Kuan-yins preceded beautiful female Kuan-yins in China. In the Nihon Ryōiki, three stories are on the Eleven-Headed Kannon and Thousand-Armed Kannon, while one is on the Kannon based on the Lotus Sutra (p. 87)."
   
• "The author Kyōkai was moved to compile these stories both by a sense of awe of the Buddhist dharma (teachings) and by a sense of the wonder of the world. He lived a monastic life at a temple called Yakushi-ji 薬師寺, one of the great state temples in Nara, during a period of political change when the capital was in the process of being moved from Nara to Nagaoka and then to Kyoto. His work served as a source from which his fellow monks might draw 'true stories' to illustrate their popular preaching. It has also become the source of later legendary literature in Japan, many of its motifs reappearing in more elaborate and polished forms. It is quoted by historians and folklorists in their attempts to reconstruct the history and popular Buddhism of the Nara period. (p. vi)."

OTHER KANNON LEGENDS

• Minamoto Yoritomo, the founder of the Kamakura Shogunate, always carried a small statue of Kannon under his helmet (inserted in his hair topknot) during battle. <need to give source>
   
• An amulet containing the Lotus Sutra (the key scripture in Japan underpinning Kannon belief) deflected an arrow and thus saved the life of Kusunoki Masahige, the most celebrated samurai of the early 14th century. <need to give source>
   
• Chinese Legends About Kannon. Known as Guanyin (Kuan-yin) in China, the Kannon is said to be the spiritual son of Amitabha (Amida), although images of the Kannon appear mostly as a goddess. The Chinese also say that Kuan-yin (Kwanjin) was born into this world as the daughter of the King of the Chow Dynasty. Sentenced to death by her father for refusing to marry, she was sent to the executioner’s block, where it is said the executioner’s sword broke without inflicting a wound. Other Chinese tales say her spirit was once transported to the underworld, where King Yama (Skt.), the lord of hell, attended to her with great respect. But her radiance turned hell into paradise, so King Yama sent her back to earth again, transporting her on a lotus flower. <need to give source>
   
• There are many other famous legends. In the Legend of Miaoshan (text by Chinese Buddhist monk Puming, written after a vision he experienced in 1103 AD), the king’s daughter gives up her own eyes and arms to help cure her ailing father. In another legend, said to have occured in 817 AD during the Chinese Tang dynasty, a beautiful girl in the countryside was much sought after for marriage by eligible young men. As the number of men who were eager to marry her was large, she adopted a novel method for selecting a suitor. She put forth a condition that she would marry the person who would memorize the Guanyin chapter of the Lotus Sutra in one night. Twenty men succeeded in doing this but because there were still too many for the marriage, she again made a request that these twenty should learn by heart the Vajracchedika sutra overnight. Once again there was a sizable number of men who had achieved the feat. The girl's third condition was that he who memorized the entire Lotus Sutra in just three days could marry her. A man named Ma Lang was the only one who could accomplish this and so the marriage was to take place. Just as the marriage ceremony was to commence the girl took ill and died. Soon after the burial an old priest visited Ma Lang and requested him to dig up the grave. The coffin contained only pieces of golden bones. The old priest said that the girl was a manifestation of Guanyin who had come to lead people to salvation. After saying this the old man too vanished. From then on the people of the district became Guanyin devotees. <For much more on Kannon lore, please see THE CREATION OF GODDESS OF MERCY FROM AVALOKITESVARA, from the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (New Delhi). The story of Ma Lang, quoted above, comes from this site.> 
   
• In India, said to be the daughter of King Śubhavyūha 妙莊王, who had her killed by "stifling” because the sword of the executioner broke without hurting her. Her spirit went to hell; but hell changed into paradise. Lord Yama (Skt.) sent her back to life to save his hell, when she was miraculously transported on a Lotus flower to the island of Pu-To." (Eitel; Muller; Soothill]
  
  
• Kannon Reigenki 観音霊験記. Famous Ukiyoe 浮世絵 (woodblock) artist Utagawa Kunisada 歌川国貞 (1786-1864) published a series of Kannon paintings known in English as the “Mysterious Stories of Kannon Bodhisattva.”  Click here for numerous photos.
   
• JAANUS www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/k/kannon.htm
  Since around the 14th century, illustrations of the stories of Kannon temples and images were produced in abundance. Images of Kannon were made as part of Emperor Shōmu's 聖武 (reigned 724 to 749) effort to impose Buddhist structure on Japan. Temples dedicated to Kannon were founded, many following the apparition of the deity or the miraculous appearance of an image. A temple dedicated to Kannon was often built in a mountain, beside a rock formation, near a spring, or near some other remarkable landscape feature, suggesting that the site was already sacred and was adapted to Buddhist use. Stories of such images and temples abound among engi 縁起 (origin stories) and setsuwa 説話 (religious stories), and they found expression in accompanying paintings (shaji engi-e 社寺縁起絵).
   
• JAANUS www.aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/s/shajiengie.htm
  Shaji Engi-e　社寺縁起絵. Often abbreviated as Engi-e 縁起絵. Paintings of the origins and history of a temple or shrine, usually amplified with legends accompanied by miraculous stories (REIGEN SETSUWA 霊験説話 = lit."explanations and stories of beneficial effects of spirits"), added in order to propagate the institution or sect's teachings and to enhance its prestige. Pictorializations tended to require many scenes and so were executed either on handscrolls (Emaki 絵巻), in compositions of ten in horizontal registers, or incorporating many scenes on hanging scrolls (kakemono 掛物). 

Mizuko Kuyō Kannon 水子供養観音

• SOURCE: Mark R. Mullins, The Many Forms and Functions of Kannon in Japanese Religion and Culture. Published in the April-June 2008 issue of Dharma World. Mullins is a member of the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Graduate School of Global Studies at Sophia University, Tokyo, where his teaching and research focuses on religion in modern society.
   
• Footnote 1. The literature on mizuko kuyo is already quite extensive. Some representative works in English include Ann Page Brooks, "Mizuko Kuyo and Japanese Buddhism," Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 8, no. 34 (1981); Eiki Hoshino and Dosho Takeda, "Mizuko Kuyo and Abortion in Contemporary Japan," in Religion and Society in Modern Japan: Selected Readings, ed. Mark R. Mullins, Susumu Shimazono, and Paul Swanson (Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1993); and Helen Hardacre, Marketing the Menacing Fetus in Japan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). 
   
• Footnote 2. The cost for kuyo services is thirty-five thousand yen (US$330) for one mizuko, and sixty-five thousand yen (US$600) for two. All of the transactions can be conducted by sending funds to the temple's bank or postal account. This information has been gleaned from Daikannonji's home page; see daikannon.or.jp/mizuko/top.html.
   
• Footnote 3. See mizuko-kuyo-akasaka.org for more info on this specialized temple.

Nyoirin Kannon 如意輪観音

1. right hand touching cheek represents vow
   to save beings in hell
2. right hand holding a wish-fulfilling jewel represents
   vow to save those in the realm of hungry ghosts
3. right hand holding a rosary represents vow
   to save those in the animal realm
4. left hand touching lotus throne represents vow to save those in realm of demons called Asura
5. left hand holding lotus bud represents vow
   to save those in the human realm
6. left hand holding Dharma wheel represents vow to save those in the heavenly Deva realm
   
   Above list adapted from "Essentials of Buddhist Images: A Comprehensive Guide to Sculpture, Painting, and Symbolism" by Matsunami Kōdō; first English edition March 2005; published by Omega-Com.

Says the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism: “One of the six forms of Avalokitêśvara. Saves all beings with the gem of satisfaction 如意珠 and the wheel of the law 法輪. Transliterated as 震多摩尼斫迦羅.” <end quote>. Says JAANUS: Nyoirin was worshipped as a deity who protected the life of the emperor. The well-known 9th-century wooden statue at Kanshinji 観心寺 (Osaka), as well as Nyoirin images at Murōji 室生寺 (Nara) and Kannōji 神呪寺 (Hyōgo Prefecture), make a group of three masterpieces called San Nyoirin 三如意輪.” <end quote> See photos of the Three Nyoirin below. 

The six-armed Nyoirin Kannon appears often in the Taizōkai (Matrix) Mandala, wherein the deity is is often colored in gold. Nyoirin is also the central deity in the Nyoirin Kannon Mandala, as well as the object of veneration in rituals to the seven stars of the Big Dipper. The Seven-Star Nyoirin Kannon ritual was conducted from the late Heian period onward to increase one’s lifespan. Various ritual artwork is still extant (e.g. Kanazawa Bunko Museum 金沢文庫), and the ritual itself is described in an extant 13th-century text known as Shichisei Nyoirin Danyō 七星如意輪壇様.

Nyoirin underwent a gender change after arriving in Japan. Originally male in the esoteric pantheon of mainland Asia, the deity in Japan was identified with several feminine deities and ultimately considered female. Says scholar Sarah Fremerman in a presentation given at the annual meeting (March 4-7, 2004) of the Association for Asian Studies:

“Beginning in the Nara period, faithful attempts to transmit Chinese esoteric Buddhist lineages to Japan gave rise to a whole new body of esoteric teachings (mikkyō). One striking example of this phenomenon is the cult of Nyoirin Kannon, a Tantric manifestation of Avalokitesvara depicted holding a wish-fulfilling jewel (cintamani) and a ’wheel of dharma.’ In Japan, Nyoirin gained a widespread popularity that her cult had never claimed in China -- she now served as a guardian of esoteric power associated with the cintamani and thus also identified with relics, as well as a beloved granter of worldly benefits. As the bodhisattva became identified with several feminine deities in Japan, particularly the ‘jewel woman’ (J. gyokujo), her gender changed from male to female and she became a favorite object of devotion for women. Yet Nyoirin iconography retained a distinctly Central Asian flavor, particularly her posture of ’royal ease’ often found in paintings at Dunhuang and other sites, but less common in Japan. One rich source of information on Nyoirin’s cult in both China and Japan is Bodhiruci’s translation of the Dharani Sutra of Cintamanicakra (Ruilun tuoluoni jing), which gives a description of the bodhisattva and the esoteric ritual centered on the recitation of her dharani, identified as the cintamani. Japanese sculptures and paintings of Nyoirin, and comparison with their Chinese predecessors, provide further clues for understanding how the cult of Nyoirin Kannon developed in Japan.” <end quote from the Association for Asian Studies>. See Nyoirin Resources below for more from Sarah Fremerman. Her 2008 Ph. D dissertation for Stanford University was entitled “Divine Impersonations: Nyoirin Kannon in Medieval Japan.”

Images of Nyoirin Kannon in Japan are also found frequently in graveyards. In the Edo Period (1615-1868), women-only confraternities (kō 講) of worship devoted to a female version of the wish-granting Nyoirin Kannon began to flourish. Called the Jūkūyakō 十九夜講 (lit. = 19th Night Club), such women-only clubs would gather each month on the 19th night of the lunar calendar to pray for fertility, easy delivery, healthy children, safety from women's diseases, and the repose of female friends and relatives who had passed on (hence the ubiquitous Nyoirin gravestone). In the Tsukuba 筑波 area of Ibaraki Prefecture 茨城県, for example, women even today gather on the 19th night of the lunar calendar, but now only twice yearly (not monthly as in the past). See this E-site for a modern review of the practice.

OUTSIDE RESOURCES ON NYOIRIN KANNON 如意輪観音

• Divine Impersonations: Nyoirin Kannon in Medieval Japan
  By Sarah Alizah Fremerman, Ph. D. Thesis (2008), Stanford Univ., Dept. of Religious Studies.
  QUOTE: By the late Heian (794-1186) and Kamakura periods, Nyoirin had attained a widespread popularity in Japan that she had likely never enjoyed in China, playing a central role in court rituals; becoming a favorite object of worship for women, associated with fertility, childbirth, and by the Muromachi period (1392-1573) with salvation from the "Blood Pool Hell" (chi no ikejigoku 地の池地獄) and appearing not only in the Shingon pantheon but also in Tendai, Soto Zen, and other sects. She does not appear in medieval tale collections such as the Hokke Genki or Konjaku Monogatari, although she does appear in the 14th-century Shintōshū 神道集, which presents an intriguing topic for future research. To purchase her dissertation, please click here.
   
• Canonizing Kannon: The Ninth-Century Esoteric Buddhist Altar at Kanshinji Temple
  By Cynthea J. Bogel. The Art Bulletin, Vol. 84, No. 1 (March 2002), pp. 30-64.
  QUOTE: Annually, on April 17 and 18, devotees flock by the hundreds to Kanshinji Temple, located deep in the mountains south of Osaka, to pray to the temporarily revealed secret image. From a respectful distance they beseech the Nyoirin Kannon for blessings through the power of the "wish-granting gem" held in the innermost right hand of its six arms. Judging by the historical record and applying comparative stylistic analysis, art historians generally date the Nyoirin Kannon statue to about 840. It is thus the earliest surviving Japanese representation of this particular bodhisattva, one of many Esoteric forms of the Kannon (Sanskrit: Avalokitesvara). A temple record dating to 883 shows that the Nyoirin Kannon image was originally but one icon among a group of statues and paintings made for the altar of the monastery's lecture hall.
   
• JAANUS (Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System)
  aisf.or.jp/~jaanus/deta/n/nyoirinkannon.htm
   
• Gabi Greve
  darumamuseumgallery.blogspot.com/2007/05/nyoirin-kannon.html
  haikuandhappiness.blogspot.com/2007/08/hotoke.html

Roku Kannon, Six Kannon 六觀音
Chinese = Liù Guānyīn. Like Japanese groupings of Six Jizō Bosatsu, Kannon is also shown in six basic forms to protect people in each of the six realms of karmic rebirth. Worship of the Six Jizō can be traced back to the 11th century in Japan, but the Jizō grouping has no basis in Mahayana scripture or in the writings of Buddhist clergy. Its origin is probably linked to a similar grouping of Six Kannon that appeared in the early-mid 10th century in Japan’s Tendai 天台 sect, wherein effigies of Six Kannon were used to pray for the welfare of the dead. This grouping of Six Kannon originated much earlier in China, and draws its scriptural basis from the Mohe Zhiguan 摩訶止観 (Jp. = Makashikan), a work written around 594 AD by the noted Chinese Tien-tai master Chih-i 智顗 (538 - 597) that is translated as “Great Concentration and Insight.” By the 11th century, Japan’s Shingon sect also began venerating the Six Kannon. The worship of Six Jizō appeared around the same time. The six emanations of Jizō and Kannon vary among temples and sects. In Japan’s Shingon sect, the Six Kannon also appear frequently in the Rokujikyō Mandara 六字経曼荼羅, which was used in the Rokujikyōhō 六字経法 esoteric rite for childbirth or to ward off illness. <Source: Kashara & McCarthy. A History of Japanese Religion. Kosei, 2001> Learn more about the 6 Realms.

Ryūzu Kannon 龍頭観音

 
Some of Kannon’s 33 Forms at Hase Dera (Hase Kannon Temple) in Kamakura
Garuda (birdman) & Bato Kannon (Horse Head) are among these deities.
A set of 33 was presented to Hase Dera by Shogun Yoshimasa (1449-1471 AD). More photos below.

33 Forms of Kannon at Hase Dera in Kamakura
Thirty-three wood-carved figures were presented to Hase Kannon Temple 長谷寺 (Kamakura) by Shogun Yoshimasa (1449-1471 AD). The set originally surrounded the temple’s central image of the 11-Headed Kannon, but they are now housed in the temple’s 2nd-floor treasure house to better preserve them. The 33 forms do not entirely conform to the 33 forms appearing in the Lotus Sutra. They represent the keshin, or incarnations, of the Goddess of Mercy, who, it is said, comes in many forms to save the souls of the suffering. To Tibetans, for example, the Dalai Lama is an incarnation of Kannon. Pictured below are some of the 33 keshin at Hase Dera. Another set of 33 can be found at Ishiyamadera 石山寺 in Shiga prefecture.

Some of Kannon’s 33 Forms at Hase Dera Temple in Kamakura. Photo scanned from temple brochure.

More Photos of 33 Kannon Statues
kamaishi-daikannon.com/33kannon.html

Senchū Yūgen Kannon 船中湧現観音
A manifestation of Kannon who calms the raging waters. Says the Flammarion Iconographic Guide: “A particular form of Kannon in Japan, called Senchū Yūgen Kannon 船中湧現観音, appeared to the monk Kūkai on the boat that conveyed him to China in 806. He has the appearance of a Deva, is crowned with flowers, and calms the waves with a gesture of this hand." <end quote, page 169>

Editor’s note: The term Senchū Yūgen literally means “inspired vision while on a boat.” The deity is also known as Densenchū Yūgen Kannon 伝船中湧現観音.”

Photo at Right
Painting of Senchū Yūgen Kannon 船中湧現観音.
Apparition of Kannon calming the raging waters.
National Treasure of Ryūkō-in Temple (Ryuko-in) 竜光院, Wakayama Prefecture. Dated to the 12th Century. H = 79.4 cm, W = 41.8 cm. Photo from magazine 日本の国宝, #038, Feb. 1997.

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Senju Kannon, 1000-Armed Kannon 千手觀音

• Senju Sengen Kannon 千手千眼観音. Literally “Kannon of 1000 Arms & 1000 Eyes.”
• Senju Sengen Kanjizai  千手千眼観自在菩薩. Literally “Kanjizai of 1000 Arms & 1000 Eyes.”
• Sanskrit = Sahasra-bhuja Sahasra-netra Avalokiteśvara (1000 Arms & 1000 Eyes)

Senju 千手 literally means one thousand arms or one thousand hands. However, since it is extremely hard to carve statues with 1000 arms/hands, most Japanese sculptures of this deity are portrayed with only 42 arms. Ordinarily, two regular arms/hands form the Mudra of Veneration (Jp. = Gasshō-in 合掌印; Skt. = Anjali), while the remaining 40 arms/hands represent the 25 Buddhist worlds. Thus, 40 arms x 25 worlds = 1000. Extant Japanese statuary showing all 1000 arms is rare -- one example is housed at Tōshōdaiji Temple 唐招提寺 in Nara and another at Fujiidera Temple 葛井寺 in Osaka. Eleven heads are typically shown atop the crown of extant Senju statuary (see 11-Headed Kannon), but versions with 27 heads, or just one head with a third eye, also exist. One 27-headed version with 42 arms is housed at Hosshō-ji Temple 法性寺 in Kyoto (see above photo, courtesy this J-site).

OBJECTS IN HANDS OF SENJU KANNON
Click below chart to visit the Objects Page

FEATURES OF THE 1000-ARMED KANNON IN JAPAN

• Senju Kannon is lord of the Lotus Court (Renge-in 蓮華印 or Rengebu-in 蓮華部院) of the Taizōkai (Womb World or Matrix Mandala), where Senju is sometimes accompanied by 28 attendants called the Nijūhachi Bushū 二十八部衆 (the 28 Legions), an eclectic group of supernatural creatures and Buddhist deities (adopted from the Hindu pantheon) who assist Senju. This can vary, mind you, for sometimes Senju is only attended by the goddess Kudokuten (aka Kichijōten) and the immortal Basusen. The Renge-in (Lotus Court) is also known as the Kannon-in 観音院. Most esoteric forms of Kannon appear here. In sculpture, extant examples of the Nijūhachi Bushū are rare. Notable examples include Sanjūsangendō 三十三間堂 in Kyoto, Jōroku-ji Temple 丈六寺 in Shiga, and Kōfuku-ji Temple 興福寺 in Nara (only eight of the 28 are extant at Kōfuku-ji). The Oku-no-in of Kiyomizudera in Kyoto houses a hidden image of Senju Kannon crowned with 28 heads, one for each of the 28 protection genii (i.e., Nijūhachi Bushū). They are shown to the faithful only once every 33 years. Their next showing will be in 2010. Says the Flammarion Guide: "In the Garbhadhatu Mandala, these 28 heads are described as representing the 28 constellations. When he presides over the 28 Bushū, he has a third eye." <end Flammarion quote, page 166>
   
• Senju Kannon also appears in the Kokūzō-in 虚空蔵院 (Court of Kokūzō Bosatsu) of the Taizōkai Mandala with 27 faces and 42 main arms, while innumerable small arms fan out behind.  ^{[Source JAANUS]} 
   
• Senju Kannon is the patron of people born in the Zodiac Year of the Rat.
   
• From the 8th century onward in Japan, Senju Kannon was prayed to for curing sickness, relieving eye problems, and avoiding blindness. The famous Chinese monk Ganjin 鑑真 (688-763), the founder and blind preceptor of the Ritsu 律 sect in Japan, was a great devotee of the 1000-Armed Kannon. Ganjin lost his sight during his troubled voyages from China to Japan -- he had been invited to Japan by Emperor Shōmu 聖武 (reigned +724-749) to establish an ordination platform, but suffered five unsuccessful sea voyages to Japan and lost his eye sight in the process. Ganjin enshrined an image of Senju Kannon at his temple, Tōshōdaiji (Toshodaiji) 唐招提寺 in Nara. In the 9th century, the famous court official Sugawara no Michizane 菅原道真 (845-903) “sponsored a ceremonial reading of the Lotus Sutra in memory of his parents, with prayers that Kannon would allow them to be reborn in his Pure Land. Michizane especially venerated Kannon because as a child he had been cured of a serious illness in answer to his parents' prayers to the bodhisattva.”  ^{[Source: A History of Japanese Religion, p. 136, Kazuo Kasahara]} 
   
• The world's largest statue of the 1000-Armed 1000-Eyed Kannon is reportedly located at Puning Temple in China (Hebei Province). This 18th century wooden sculpture is 23.5 meters in height and weighs about 10 tons. Source: <Source>

1000 Armed Kannon
Fujii Dera Temple 葛井寺 (Osaka), Dated 752 AD, one of the earliest extant statues of this form of Kannon
Photo scanned from サライ Magazine, 2001.6.7, Vol.13, No.11


Senju Kannon (Middle Photo)
13th Century, Sanjūsangendō in Kyoto, Carved by Tankei (Unkei’s son)
Photo scanned from temple catalog


Senju Kannon, 13th Century, Sanjusangendo in Kyoto
Senju Kannon (Closeup), 13th Century. Sanjūsangendō (Kyoto). Photo from temple catalog.
Photo scanned from temple brochure

SHŌ KANNON  聖観音 or 正観音

SUIGETSU KANNON  水月観音

Suigetsu Kannon Reproduction
http://www3.ocn.ne.jp/~k.hosoda/649-A_bessonnzakki.htm

Tara (Tarani) Bosatsu 多羅菩薩

War Dead Kannon
Dozens of Dai-Kannon 大観音 (Big Kannon).statues have been erected in recent times (post WWII onward). Many were built to pray for world peace and for the repose of the war dead and the victims of the atomic bombings. Some examples are presented below.

Kannon Memorials on Behalf of the War Dead
Writes scholar Mark R. Mullins in The Many Forms and Functions of Kannon in Japanese Religion and Culture: “Numerous religious institutions and municipalities have built memorials and regularly conduct rituals on behalf of the war dead. In most cases, Kannon has been selected to serve as the central figure to care for the spirits of the dead and to comfort the spirits of those left in the land of the living. Several examples are worth noting here.

• Koa Kannon in Atami. The Koa Kannon was initially established because of the strong desire of Iwane Matsui, a general in the Japanese army, to memorialize and comfort those who died in the war with China (1937), including both Chinese and Japanese soldiers who lost their lives in the conflict. The Kannon image was established for this purpose in 1940. At the end of World War II, Matsui stood trial and was convicted as a Class-A war criminal and was executed on December 23, 1948. In 1960 the remains of Matsui and six other executed Class-A war criminals were enshrined in the precincts. In addition, there are memorials for 1,619 individuals convicted as Class-B and Class-C war criminals. There is also a memorial to Radhabinod Pal, who served as a judge and representative of India during the Tokyo War Crimes Trials.
• Tokko Heiwa Kannon-sama. Setagaya Kannon Temple. Dedicated to the memory and care of the Tokkotai -- almost five thousand kamikaze pilots -- who died on behalf of the nation. Shō Kannon is the principle image (honzon) enshrined here.
• Kamikaze Peace Kannon Shrine. In the town of Chiran in Kagoshima Prefecture, in honor of the some one thousand kamikaze pilots who flew out from the Chiran bases (as well as other bases) in the last days
• Peace Parks and Memorials. Giant Kannon statues have been erected in numerous locations in Japan, including Ofuna, Nagasaki, Hiroshima, and Okinawa. A Kannon statue was placed at the Hiroshima Memorial Mound, which contains the ashes of the unidentified victims of the atomic bomb. Another was placed in the Hall of Mourning, which was built in the Nagasaki Peace Park in 1995. They are especially dedicated to the unknown dead, whose "untimely" or "bad" death resulted from the atomic bombs.” <end abridged quotes from Mark R. Mullins> 

Yume Chigai Kannon 夢違観音

Lit. = Dream-Changing Kannon.
Also read Yume Tagae Kannon.

This statue reportedly changes bad dreams into good dreams.
One of four Kannon statues designated as national treasures at
Hōryū-ji Temple 法隆寺 in Nara.

PHOTO:
Yume Chigai Kannon
8th Century, Hōryū-ji Temple 法隆寺 in Nara

Yumedono Kannon 夢殿観音
A famous statue that was hidden for centuries inside the Yumedono Hall 夢殿 (Dream Hall) at Hōryū-ji Temple 法隆寺 in Nara. The statue was reportedly made in the image of Prince Shōtoku Taishi (the first great patron of Buddhism in Japan) and was wrapped in some 500 yards of white cloth when it was first unveiled in 1884. The statue is commonly known as the Guze Kannon (see Guze entry for details).

RITE OF REPENTANCE
SHUNI-E CEREMONY FOR KANNON
Special Kannon Ritual at Tōdaiji (Todaiji) Temple in Nara
Below Text Courtesy of Temple’s English Brochure

<Source: Todaji Temple English Brochure> The Shuni-e Ceremony is best known by the name of Omizutori. Begun in 752 AD by Jitchuu, the chief disciple of Rōben who founded Tōdaiji Temple, the ceremony is formally a rite of repentance to the Eleven-Headed Kannon in which penitence for one’s misdeeds is sought in front of an image of the 11-Headed Kannon (Jp. = Senju Kannon). Due to the Three Poisons -- covetousness, anger, and ignorance that are the true nature of humans -- we commit myriad offenses which accumulate as contaminants of the spirit; as a result we become unable to see the truth and we also become ill. Through the ceremony, one can repent one’s misdeeds and attain a pure mind and body, do away with the misfortune and woes that are the retribution for one’s evil deeds, and obtain well-being. However, although the Shuni-e is a rite of repentance, it is important to remember that when it was begun it was a ritual performed on behalf of the state. Natural disasters, epidemics, and rebellions were all seen as “illnesses” of the state and the ritual was performed in order to cure such illnesses, to gain a fruitful harvest of the Five Crops, and to achieve peace under heaven -- in other words, to guarantee the welfare of the people.

When the rite of repentance is for the state or all its people, a special group of performers and a ceremony of a suitable scale become necessary. Thus, rites of repentance as services to be held by a large number of monks were devised and the Shuni-e Ceremony took form as on such ritual. The monks who participate in it are called the RENGYOUSHUU. Presently their number is eleven, among whom various responsibilities are divided. The four senior positions include the WAJOU, who administers the Buddhist precepts to the entire group; the DAIDOUSHI, who chants the prayers and the essence of various texts and who functions as the leader of the whole ceremony; the SHUSHI, who determines the sacred boundaries of the ritual space and who intones the daranis (secret incantations) while forming mudras (symbolic hand gestures); and the DOUTSUKASA, who ensures that the ceremony proceeds properly and is in charge of miscellaneous affairs surrounding the Shuni-e Ceremony. The remaining seven participants are known as the HIRASHUU. In addition, there are a number of people who assist the RENGYOUSHUU, so in all almost 30 individuals are directly involved with this ceremony.

The RENGYOUSHUU repent misdeeds on behalf of all people and seek their welfare by praying to Kannon. Since they function in many ways as intermediaries between Kannon and ordinary people, they must possess a considerable amount of religious insight.

The ceremony begins with a preparatory period held at the Kaidan-in between the 20th and the 28th of February, known as the BEKKA. During this time the RENGYOUSHUU cut themselves off from their usual lives and gradually purify their minds and bodies. In addition they prepare the paper for paper garments, known as KAMIKO, worn only during the Shuni-e Ceremony and they make artificial camellias used to ornament the altar of the Nigatsu-dou and practice SHOUMYOU, the chanting of Buddhist sutras.

On the afternoon of February 28th when the BEKKA ends, the RENGYOUSHUU move to the Shelter of Reclusion located below the Nigatsu-dou, where they reside for the duration of the ceremony. Late that evening the main ceremony begins. Lasting two weeks it is divided into the Former Seven Days and the Latter Seven Days. In turn, each day of the ceremony is divided into six periods: noon watch, sunset watch, first evening watch, mid-evening watch, latter evening watch, and dawn watch, which are known as the Observances of the Six Hours (Rokuji no Gyoubou). Because the sutras chanted at each time vary according to their length and speed, throughout the day the SHOUMYOU is exceedingly varied. In many ways, this recitation should be seen as a type of Buddhist music.

During the first evening watch, the Register of the Names of the Kami (JINMYOU-CHOU) is presented and read, a practice of great antiquity. When Monk Jitchuu first held the Observances of the Six Hours, at the presentation and recitation of the names of the Kami (Shinto divinities), he summoned the myriad Shinto deities throughout the land and they rushed to the Nigatsu-dou to pray for the success of the ceremony and to provide it with protection. But the god O-Nyuu Myoujin of Wakasa was late because he had been fishing. It is said that when he finally did arrive just as the observance was ending, he was so moved that he promised that he would provide lustral water to apologize for his tardiness. Thereupon, two comorants, one white and one black, shattered a great boulder and water gushed out of the ground. From that time onward, sacred water has flowed plentifully from the spring. After midnight on the 12th day of the ceremony, this sacred water is drawn and offered to Kannon, and it is from this practice that the name OMIZUTORI, literally “the drawing of water,” is derived.

Other parts of the ceremony include the HASHIRI, when the RENGYOUSHUU tuck up their robes and running, circumambulate the inner sanctum; the fire ritual known as the DATTAN, in which a great pine torch is swung about in the inner sanctum; and the presentation and recitation of the Register of the Names of the Dead, including that of the legendary Lady in Blue who is said to have appeared during the ceremony in the Kamakura Period inquiring as to why her name was not included in the list. It has been thus performed from that time onward. <end quote from Todaiji Temple, Nara>

LEARN MORE

Online Store

• Hand-carved statues of Kannon are available for online purchase at our sister site, Buddhist-Artwork.com. Our store sells quality hand-carved wooden Buddha statues and Bodhisattva statues, especially those carved for the Japanese market. It is aimed at art lovers, Buddhist practitioners, and laity alike. Just like this site (OnmarkProductions.com), it is not associated with any educational institution, private corporation, governmental agency, or religious group. 

Resources

• JAANUS. Japanese Architecture and Art Net Users System. Outside link. No longer online. A wonderful online dictionary that included many details on Kannon Bodhisattva in Japanese art. Also included separate entries on many Kannon manifestations in Japan.
• See Bibliography for our complete list of resources on Japanese Buddhism, or visit any site page and scroll to the bottom for detailed resources on that specific deity or topic.
• A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. With Sanskrit & English Equivalents. Plus Sanskrit-Pali Index. By William Edward Soothill & Lewis Hodous. Hardcover, 530 pages. Published by Munshirm Manoharlal. Reprinted March 31, 2005. ISBN 8121511453.
• Butsuzō-zu-i 仏像図彙, the “Collected Illustrations of Buddhist Images.” Published in 1690 (Genroku 元禄 3). One of Japan’s first major studies of Buddhist iconography. Hundreds of pages and drawings, with deities classified into approximately 80 (eighty) categories. Modern-day reprints are available at this online store (J-site).
• Mandara Zuten 曼荼羅図典 (Japanese Edition). The Mandala Dictionary. 422 pages. First published in 1993. Publisher Daihorinkaku 大法輪閣. Language Japanese. ISBN-10: 480461102-9. Available at Amazon.
• Kokugakuin University Shinto Online Dictionary 
• Digital Dictionary of Chinese Buddhism (C. Muller; login "guest")
• Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture. Numerous online scholarly papers and its semi-annual Japanese Journal of Religious Studies. 
• Mark R. Mullins, The Many Forms and Functions of Kannon in Japanese Religion and Culture. Published in the April-June 2008 issue of Dharma World. Mullins is a member of the Faculty of Liberal Arts and Graduate School of Global Studies at Sophia University, Tokyo, where his teaching and research focuses on religion in modern society.
• John Nelson, "From Battlefield to Atomic Bomb to the Pure Land of Paradise: Employing the Bodhisattva of Compassion to Calm Japan's Spirits of the Dead," Journal of Contemporary Religion 1, no. 2 (2002): 160-61. Nelson is associate professor at the Department of Theology and Religious Studies, University of San Francisco.
• Buddhism: Flammarion Iconographic Guides, by Louis Frederic, Printed in France, ISBN 2-08013-558-9, First published 1995. A highly illustrated volume, with special significance to those studying Japanese Buddhist iconography. Includes many of the myths and legends of mainland Asia as well, but its special strength is in its coverage of the Japanese tradition. Hundreds of accompanying images/photos, both B&W and color. A useful addition to your research bookshelf.
• A History of Japanese Religion. Edited by Kazuo Kasahara. Kosei Publishing Company, 2001. Translated by Paul McCarthy and Gaynor Sekimori. 648 pages. Sixteen distinguished experts on Japanese religion approach the topic from modern perspectives. Topics range from prehistoric times up until the early postwar years. Click here to read review of book by scholar Paul L. Swanson.
• Canonizing Kannon: The Ninth-Century Esoteric Buddhist Altar at Kanshinji Temple, by Cynthea J. Bogel. The Art Bulletin, Vol. 84, No. 1 (Mar., 2002), pp. 30-64.
• Kannon – Divine Compassion: Early Buddhist Art from Japan. Edited by Katharina Epprecht. 196 pages, Hardback, 85 illustrations, ISBN: 978 3 907077 30 6.
• Divine Impersonations: Nyoirin Kannon in Medieval Japan, by Sarah Alizah Fremerman, Ph. D. Thesis (2008), Stanford Univ., Department of Religious Studies.
• Manjushri.com - Avalokitesvara Page. Research on Kannon from Manjushri.com.
• O-Shichi Kannon. Relatively modern Kannon form in memory of Yaoya O-Shichi and the great fire in Edo in 1682. Also see list of Okayama Prefecture 33 Kannon Pilgrimage.
• Temple of the Lotus (J-site with numerous old drawings of the 33 Kannon forms)

Sanskrit Images & Mantras

• Sanskrit Seeds and Esoteric Mantras (Tobifudo). Above seed syllables and mantras used with permission from Ryūkozan Shōbō-in Temple 龍光山正寶院. Based in Tokyo. Tendai Sect.

Museums & Photo Resources

• Freer and Sackler Galleries of Japanese Art
• Himalayan Art Resources, Avalokiteshvara (Kannon) Art
• Huntington Archive of Buddhist and Related Art
• Kannon in Woodblocks by Utagawa Kunisada
• Kyoto National Museum
• Lycos Kannon Page
• Miho Museum of Japan
• Nara National Museum
• Stone Statues of the Gods (J-site)
• Tokyo National Museum (Main Site, Buddhist Statuary)
• Tokyo National Museum (E-Museum)

Last Update May 12, 2012 = Updated Fudarakusen section
Last Update April 9, 2011 = Added Fure-ai Kannon (“Touch Me” Kannon)
Last Update July 5, 2011 = Bishamonten as a manifestation of Kannon

Copyright 1995 - 2014. Mark Schumacher. Email Mark.
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