Illustrated & Annotated Slideshow. Two Versions Available.
You are viewing the fully annotated show. The minimally annotated show is here.

Tiāntái Buddhism (100+ Photos)
Sacred Icons of China's Mt. Tiāntái Region

MAPS                                                                                                 click any image to enlarge

Mt. Tiāntái (C = Tiāntái shān 天台山) is home to the Chinese Tiāntái School (Tiāntái Zōng 天台宗) of Buddhism. It is the first Chinese school to break significantly from the Indian tradition and therefore represents China's earliest indigenous Buddhist system of thought. Tiāntái 天台 literally means Heavenly Platform or Platform of Heaven, while Mt. Tiāntái may be translated as Heavenly Terrace Mountain. Its name is attributed to the six stars at the foot of Ursa Major, under which the mountain was said to be. The de facto founder of the Tiāntái school is Zhìyǐ 智顗 (538–597); also known as Zhìzhě 智者. His systematic taxonomy of Buddhist teachings was the first of its kind in China, and it eventually attracted the attention of Korea and Japan, who imported the teachings in later centuries. In Japan, the Tendai school (as it is known in Japan) flourished under the patronage of the imperial family and nobility until its headquarters (the sprawling temple-shrine multiplex at Mt. Hiei) was burnt to the ground in 1571 by the warlord Oda Nobunaga.

LEARN MORE:

• Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (log in with user name = guest). Keywords 天台宗, 天台山, 智顗.
• Professor Stevenson has written extensively on China's Tiāntái traditions. His writings and our seminar's reading list can be found here (it will eventually be taken offline).

PEOPLE                                                                                           click any image to enlarge

This event was organized by the founder of Woodenfish, the Venerable Yifa (born, raised, and trained in Taiwan). Kudos to Guttorm Norberg Gundersen for his excellent work as event coordinator. The retreat was originally set to occur at Huádǐng Temple 華頂講寺, located atop Mt. Tiāntái. At the last minute, however, the temple bailed out, so the Venerable Yifa found us accommodation at a hotel near Guóqing Temple 国清寺. The temple, located at the base of Mt. Tiāntái, supplied us with our lunch and dinner. Participants hailed from China, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, Israel, Norway, France, England, Canada, and America. Professor Stevenson (University of Kansas) gave a masterful overview of Tiāntái's two-wing philosophy -- the scholastic wing and meditative wing -- and a dazzling performance in textual exegesis and translation.  

MAKARA & ROOFTOP BEASTS                                        click any image to enlarge

• Makara, Shachihoko and Shibi Tiles in Japan
• Onigawara Goblin Tiles in Japan

DRAGONS & LIONS                                                                  click any image to enlarge

• Dragon Lore and Artwork in Japan (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Dragon. One of Four Celestial Emblems -- Top Page (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Roof Tiles, plus the Carp Who Became a Dragon (A-to-Z Dictionary)

DOOR GODS, HA & HENG, BLOW & SNORT            click any image to enlarge

• Niō, the Benevolent Kings in Japan (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Video of Niō Guardians (15C Niō pair on world art market)
• Longmen China. 24 photos of the pair at the famous caves

FOUR HEAVENLY KINGS                                                      click any image to enlarge

Four Heavenly Kings 四天王 (C = Sì Tiānwáng, J = Shitennō, K = Sa Cheonwang 사천왕). Buddhist guardians / protectors of the four compass directions. They ward off evil, guard the nation, and protect the world from malicious spirits. Each represents a direction, season, color, virtue, and element. They originated in India as deva generals protecting Lord Indra, but were later adopted into the Buddhist pantheon in China, Korea, and Japan. Each dwells in and protects one of the four continents surrounding Mt. Sumeru (C = Xūmí 須彌, J = Shumi, K = Sumi 수미), the mythical home of the Historical Buddha and other Buddhist deities. In East Asia, they are venerated as temple guardians and protectors of the nation. In China and Korea, statues of the four are often placed near temple entrances, but in Japan, effigies of the four are more commonly placed around the central deity on the main altar. The main dais is befittingly called, in Japanese, the Shumidan 須弥壇.

LEARN MORE: 

• Four Heavenly Kings (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Four Celestial Emblems (A-to-Z Dictionary)

PERFECTED SAINTS (LUÓHÀN)                                         click any image to enlarge

Luóhàn 羅漢 (Skt = Arhan, Arhat, J = Rakan, K = Nahan 나한). Often translated as Perfected Saints. They were the first disciples of the Historical Buddha. All achieved enlightenment and became known as the Arhans (ari = enemy, han = kill or slay; thus "Foe Destroyer" or "Enemy Slayer"). In many traditions, they were asked by the Historical Buddha to remain in the world to propagate Buddhist teachings. Three popular groupings in artwork are the Sixteen Luóhàn 十六羅漢, the Eighteen Luóhàn 十八羅漢, and the 500 Luóhàn 五百羅漢. Arhatship is the highest goal of those who practice Theravada Buddhism (i.e., the monastic tradition; monks do not marry nor have children). Those who attain Arhatship have "slain" their greed, anger and delusions, and "destroyed" their karmic residue from previous lives. They have learned the teachings of the Historical Buddha and earned the title of "Nothing Else to Learn 無学." They can no longer backslide, no longer be reborn into the world of suffering, no longer be trapped in the cycle of samsara (the six states of karmic rebirth). However, to followers of Mahayana Buddhism, the Therevada Arhat ranks below the Mahayana Bodhisattva on the chain of enlightenment. To Mahayana followers, the Theravada philosophy is false, for it stresses "self benefit" -- practicing the monastic life for oneself, by oneself, strictly for one's own emancipation. Indeed, the term "Hinayana," meaning Lesser Vehicle, was attached to the Theravada school by Mahayana adherents, who hoped to portray the Theravada teachings as inferior. Thus the term Hinayana is derogatory and used to denigrate Theravada traditions. It is a term that should be (and is) avoided by most modern scholars. Like the Bodhisattva, the Arhat will certainly achieve Buddhahood. Buddhist artwork in China tends to promote themes from both the Theravada and Mahayana schools, but in Japan, the majority of art reflects the Mahayana tradition.

LEARN MORE:

• The Arhats in Japan (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Three Schools of Buddhism (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Therevada Arhat versus Mahayana Bodhisattva (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Samsara (Cycle of Suffering; Six States of Karmic Rebirth) (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (good overview of the 16 and 18 Arhats; log in = guest)

JIGŌNG, THE DRUNK MONK                                                  click any image to enlarge

Jìgōng 濟公 (1130-1207) was an eccentric, booze-guzzling itinerant monk with magical powers. He wandered around the Tiāntái area doing good deeds. He was deified into a popular folk god. In artwork, he is often shown drinking wine from a gourd. The Jìgōng Former Residence (Jìgōng Gùjū 濟公故居) is located near the base of Mt. Tiāntái. Jìgōng is commonly considered a manifestation of the Taming Dragon Arhat (C = Xiánglóng Luóhàn 降龍羅漢), one of the eighteen arhats (see above).

LEARN MORE

• Jìgōng Page (Wiki)
• Video of Jìgōng Former Residence (Youtube)

TIANTÁI PATRIARCH                                                             click any image to enlarge

Zhìyǐ 智顗 (538–597), also known as Zhìzhě 智者, is the de facto founder of the Tiāntái school. Says the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism: "A native of Ying-chuan in Anhui, became a neophyte at 7, and was fully ordained at 20. Zhìyǐ is famous for being the first scholar in the history of Chinese Buddhism to elaborate a complete, critical and systematic taxonomy of the Buddhist teachings, in order to explain the seemingly contradictory doctrines of Buddhism. He is also regarded as the first major figure to make a significant break from the Indian tradition, and to form an indigenous Chinese system. He received his most important influences from his first teacher, Nányuè Huìsī 南嶽慧思 (515–577), a meditation master who would later be listed as his predecessor in the Tiāntái lineage. After a period of study with Huìsī,  Zhìyǐ spent some time working in the southern capital of Jinling, after which he retired to Tiāntái mountain for intensive study and practice with a group of disciples, adapting the Indian meditation practice of zhǐguān 止觀 into his system. A distinctive aspect of his study and teaching is his high evaluation of the Lotus Sutra, and much of the profound influence of this text on East Asian Buddhism can be attributed to Zhìyǐ. Beyond his seminal commentaries on the Lotus among his many important works are the Móhē zhǐguān 摩訶止觀 and the Liù miào fǎmén 六妙法門. Although many of the works attributed to him may have been written by his disciples, about thirty texts are extant that list him as their author. His school also became the foundation of important Buddhist schools in Korea and Japan. In addition to his work on the Lotus Sutra, he commented on numerous other important Mahāyāna texts, also composing influential treatises on practice, such that he stands as one of the single most influential persons in the history of East Asian Buddhism." <end quote Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (user name = guest>

LEARN MORE

• Professor Stevenson has written extensively on China's Tiāntái traditions. His writings and our seminar's reading list can be found here (it will eventually be taken offline).

GUARDIANS OF OUT & IN                                                   click any image to enlarge

At many temples in China, the entrance hall typically contains the Four Heavenly Kings (see above) along with two other important guardians -- Bùdài 布袋 and Wéituótiān 韋駄天 / 違駄天. The first statue visitors see when entering the hall is the pot-bellied Bùdài (J = Hotei, K = Podae 포대). He faces out the entrance to protect those who are coming in. Bùdài is a manifestation of the Future Buddha (Skt = Maitreya, C = Mílè 彌勒, J = Miroku, K = Mireuk 미륵). Bùdài was actually an itinerant 10th-century Chinese Buddhist monk. In legends, he once fell asleep in the snow, but snow did not fall on him. He could predict when it would rain and could foretell the destinies of men. He wandered about carrying a staff, to which he attached a cloth travel bag (C = Bùdài 布袋). Hence his name. After begging for food, he would always store some food in his bag. In art, he is typically depicted carrying his cloth bag, one that never empties, for he uses it to feed the poor and needy. In some Chinese temples, he is befittingly installed in the dining hall. In Japan, he is one of the Seven Lucky Gods. Opposite Bùdài is Wéituótiān (Skt = Skandha, Pali = Khanda, J = Idaten, K = Witacheon 위타천), who faces into the monastery to protect the monks. Wéituótiān is a powerful Hindu deity who was adopted into Buddhism as a protector of monasteries and monks. His identifying attribute is a vajra-mallet. In artwork, when the weapon points straight down to the ground, it means the temple does not provide accommodation for traveling monks and pilgrims. When the weapon is balanced on his wrists and his palms are joined together in prayer, it means the monastery provides accommodation. In Chan/Zen temples in China and Japan, Wéituótiān is sometimes installed in the dining hall as the lord of food. In Japan, for instance, people say Gochisōsama deshita ご馳走様でした after every meal. In common parlance this means thank you, what a tasty meal. But it literally means "to run quickly, to chase after." Some Japanese say this after-dinner term refers directly to the so-called 馳走仁王 (lit. Humane Kings Who Fetch Food), a Japanese name for the deities responsible for fetching food and feeding it to Buddha and his followers. By inference, it also refers to Wéituótiān, who is considered a swift runner, for legend asserts he ran with great speed to catch the demon-thieves who stole the ashes of the deceased Historical Buddha.

LEARN MORE

• Weituo: A Protective Deity in Chinese Buddhism & Buddhist Art (MA Thesis, Univ. of Macau)
• Idaten and Hotei (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Idaten entry at JAANUS  //  Hotei entry at JAANUS
• Bùdài entry at Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (sign in with user name = guest)
• Manpuku-ji Temple, Japan (Statues of Hotei and Idaten)

BODHISATTVA                                                                            click any image to enlarge

Bodhisattva (C = Púsà 菩薩, J = Bosatsu, K = Bosal 보살). The penultimate state before Buddhahood. Bodhisattva are those who have reached the final stage of transmigration and enlightenment, just prior to becoming a Buddha. Bodhisattva will certainly attain Buddhahood, but for a time, they renounce the blissful state of Nirvana (freedom from suffering), vowing to remain on earth in various guises (reincarnations) to help all living beings achieve salvation. The highest goal of Mahayana practitioners is to become a Bodhisattva, while the highest goal of Theravada practitioners is to become an Arhat.

LEARN MORE

• Bodhisattva Menu (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Comparing Enlightened Beings in Mahayana and Theravada Traditions (A-to-Z Dictionary)

BUDDHA                                                                                          click any image to enlarge

Buddha (C = Fó 佛, J = Butsu / Hotoke, K = Bul 불). Those who have awakened, those who have attained enlightenment. Buddhahood is the ultimate state. In Theravada Buddhism, the monastic life is considered the sole path to spiritual awakening. Enlightenment is not thought possible for those living the secular life. But the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools of Buddhism claim that anyone, including laity, can attain enlightenment. The Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions include myriad Buddha, with the Historical Buddha (undisputed founder of Buddhism) considered just one among many. Theravada practitioners revere the Historical Buddha, but do not pay homage to the numerous other deities. The term Buddha is the past participle of Sanskrit Buddh, "to awaken, to know." Buddha is not a personal name, but a term of praise, like messiah. Tathagata is an honorific Sanskrit term for Buddha. Tathagata is rendered Rúlái 如来 in Chinese, Nyorai 如来 in Japanese, and Yeorae 여래 in Korean. For all practical purposes, the terms Buddha and Tathagata are synonymous in modern English usage.

LEARN MORE

• Buddha Menu (A-to-Z Dictionary)
• Comparing Enlightened Beings in Mahayana and Theravada Traditions (A-to-Z Dictionary)

FOLK DEITIES                                                                             click any image to enlarge

The number of Chinese folk deities is vast. Sadly I know little about them. But seminar participant and scholar of Chinese Buddhism Professor Daniel Getz was a goldmine of knowledge. He identified two of the deities appearing in the above photos. One is Zhào Gōng Míng 趙公明, the God of Money and Health. In artwork, he is commonly depicted with a black face and riding a tiger. Zhào is able to control thunder, lightning, clouds and rain. His key functions are to dispel pestilence, to ward off natural disasters, and to rectify unjust verdicts. To learn more, please see the China Knowledge web site. The identity of the red-faced deity accompanying Zhào is unknown to me. In the third photo, Professor Getz thinks the deity is Qiélán Shén 伽藍神 (J = Garanjin, K =  Garam sin 가람신). Qiélán Shén simply means "temple-protecting god," and Chinese texts refer to eighteen good Qiélán temple gods 伽藍十八善神. Qiélán is translated as Buddhist convent, Buddhist monastery, or Buddhist building, while Shén means god. The concept of Qiélán Shén was introduced to Japan together with Zen. In Japan, statues of these deities (known as Garanjin) are usually installed at Zen temples. Technically they are not folk deities, but since I myself am unsure of their identity, I put them here.

LEARN MORE

• Qiélán Shén 伽藍神 at the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (user name = guest)
• Zhào Gōng Míng 趙公明 at China Knowledge web site

WATER & LAND RITE                                                             click any image to enlarge

Shuǐlù Fǎhuì 水陸法會  (J = Suiriku Hōe K = Suryuk Hoe 수륙회). Also written Shuǐlù Zhāi 水陸齋. Translated as "The Rite for Deliverance of Creatures of Water and Land." This rite is part of the extremely popular Ghost Festival (Skt = Ullambana, C = Yúlánpén 盂蘭盆, J = Obon 御盆, お盆, K = Baekjong 백종). The Ghost Festival is practiced all over East Asia and takes place every year around mid-August. It lasts for several days. It culminates with the Water and Land Rite on the last day of the festival (which, in olden times, was the fifteenth day of the seventh moon of the lunar calendar). Interestingly, in Taoist traditions, the 15th day of the 7th month (known as Zhōngyuán 中元) is the annual day when the earth gods gather together to report on the behavior of the people. At some point in time, this day became fused with the Buddhist Ghost Festival. <source Digital Dictionary Buddhism>. The Ghost Festival involves the ritual feeding of hungry ghosts (the restless dead) and offerings of food and wealth to ancestors and deceased relatives (often in paper or representational form). Writes Noelle Giuffrida: "The Shuǐlù Fǎhuì is a major Buddhist mortuary rite performed to provide salvation for all the souls of the dead on land and sea. These rites were held beginning in the late ninth century and the ritual was extremely popular during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing periods. The ritual's procedures aim to pacify the spirits of the restless dead so that those souls are released from their liminal status and, in turn, the living are relieved of any afflictions or misfortunes caused by the troubled spirits. But as Daniel Stevenson has pointed out, Shuǐlù Fǎhuì was not exclusively a mortuary rite. It was also held on the occasion of local festivals, and its goals ranged from assurance of favorable weather to protection of the state. Buddhist monks and their assistants conducted the rite on behalf of lay patrons who sponsored the ritual.

LEARN MORE

• Stevenson, Daniel (2001). 'Text, Image, and Transformation in the History of the Shuilu fahui, The Buddhist Rite for Deliverance of Creatures of Water and Land.' In M.Weidner (ed.), Cultural Intersections in Later Chinese Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press.
• Buddhist Ullambana Ritual 盂蘭盆 (Digital Dictionary of Buddhism, user name = guest)
• Representing the Daoist God Zhenwu, the Perfected Warrior, in Late Imperial China
• Academia.edu. Ullambana Festival and Chinese Ancestor Worship
• Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture, Shuǐlù Zhāi

FUN, WORDPLAY, MISC.                                                       click any image to enlarge

NOTEBOOK

1. First published September 21, 2014.
    
2. There are two versions of the slideshow. The fully annotated version includes explanatory notes, references for further study, and detailed captions. The minimally annotated version only includes captions. It is better suited for classroom presentation.
    
3. Buddhism in China is on the rebound. After decades of Communist repression, Buddhism is staging a major comeback. But much of the past was destroyed. Nearly all the artwork herein is modern (dated to the last fifty years).
    
4. Buddhist artwork in China tends to include themes from both Theravada and Mahayana traditions. However, in Japan, the Mahayana tradition is more pronounced than the Theravada.
    
5. Due to time limitations, our seminar did not discuss the importance of religious icons -- how do statues and art help spread faith? In my mind, common interest in Buddhism probably began with icons (statues, paintings, pilgrimage slips). Was the dissemination of Buddhism among the common people achieved largely due to icons -- not to scholarship? The peasants could not read the sutras or texts, and they certainly did not understand the complicated meditation techniques.
    
6. My experience with Buddhist art is largely confined to Japan. I apologize in advance for any factual errors I may have introduced herein when talking about Chinese and Korean traditions.
    
7. Onmarkproductions.com is not associated with any educational institution, private corporation, governmental agency, or religious group. I am a single individual, working at my own pace, limited by my own inadequacies. No one is looking over my shoulder, so I must accept full responsibility for any and all inaccuracies at this site. If you discover any, please contact me directly.